Summary
The Abraham Accords formally normalized relations between Israel and the United Arab Emirates and Bahrain—countries that were later joined by Sudan, Morocco, and Kosovo—after years of covert security cooperation. In return for halting Israel’s annexation plans in Judea-Samaria, the UAE secured a pending U.S. arms package worth roughly $23 billion, while Morocco won American and Israeli recognition of its sovereignty over Western Sahara and deepened defense ties; Sudan was removed from Washington’s list of terror sponsors, and Kosovo gained Israeli recognition. For Israel and the United States, the accords opened diplomatic, economic, and security channels across a growing Arab bloc, reshaping regional geopolitics. Despite this historic step toward broader Arab acceptance of Israel, lingering religious and ideological objections within the wider Muslim world, together with commitments in bodies such as the Organization of Islamic Cooperation, could still threaten the accords’ long-term durability unless additional reconciliatory measures are adopted.
On September 15, 2020, the signing of the Abraham Accords marked the unprecedented normalization of diplomatic relations between Israel, the United Arab Emirates (UAE), and Bahrain. This international agreement was signed by Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu, U.S. President Donald Trump, Bahrain’s Foreign Minister Abdullatif bin Rashid Al Zayani, and the UAE’s Foreign Minister Sheikh Abdullah Bin Zayed Al Nahyan. This document lacks a date, and the names of the signatories are not provided under their signatures.
UAE and Bahrain thus became the third and fourth Arab/Muslim states to recognize Israel, a few decades after Egypt (Camp David Accords, 1978) and Jordan (Wadi Araba Accords, 1994). Then came Sudan (October 23, 2020), Morocco (December 10, 2020), and Kosovo (February 1, 2021).
The Abraham Accords were predictable and came as no great surprise. Indeed, the UAE and Bahrain had already unofficially developed cooperative relations with Israel since the Oslo Accords, including in the security sphere. Decades of secret cooperation enabled the Abraham Accords to emerge in 2020, ushering in a significant geopolitical shift in the Middle East. Israeli-Moroccan relations had already warmed gradually and steadily in recent decades.
1. Gains Obtained by Muslim Countries
The UAE’s normalization was achieved in exchange for the suspension of Israel’s annexation plan for Judea and Samaria, as well as for the sale of U.S. military equipment, including F-35 jets and other military equipment items, totaling approximately $23 billion, which was approved by the U.S. administration with Israel’s tacit consent. While the delivery of the aircraft was delayed at the Emirati’s request due to a reassessment of the expected cost-benefit ratio, the sales agreement remains valid.
Morocco, which obtained U.S. and Israeli recognition of its sovereignty over Western Sahara, signed a security agreement with Israel to strengthen and deepen their existing cooperation, which includes the sale of 150 drones, an air defense system and other measures such as the participation of Israeli observers in the African Lion Global Military Exercise.
Sudan was removed on October 2020, from the U.S. list of state sponsors of terror. Israel is not mentioned in this document and did not sign it. Kosovo obtained further recognition from the State of Israel.
2. Gains Obtained by Israel and the U.S.
The Abraham Accords formalized economic and financial relations between Muslim states and Israel and permitted the establishment of diplomatic relations. It constituted an historic moment for Israel, the U.S., and the North Africa-Middle East regions, especially as this upheaval transformed the civil societies of some Arab/Muslim countries as well as the state narratives of their leaders.
3. The Principles Mentioned in the Abraham Accords
Interfaith and intercultural dialogue can advance a culture of peace among the three Abrahamic religions and all humanity.1 The best way to address this challenge is through cooperation and dialogue and the development of friendly relations. Seeking tolerance and respect for every person will make this world a place where all can enjoy a life of dignity and hope, no matter their race, faith, or ethnicity. The support of science, the arts, medicine, and commerce inspires humankind, maximizes human potential, and brings nations closer together. Seeking an end to radicalization and conflicts will provide all children with a better future. Pursuing a vision of peace and security will bring prosperity to the Middle East and around the world.
As related in the Bible, Abraham understood that his children (Isaac, Ishmael, Zimran, Jokshan, Medan, Midian, Ishbak, and Shuah) and their descendants would fight after his death to claim ownership of the Promised Land. He gave to all of them some gifts and sent them away far from Isaac, eastward, to “the Land of the East.” Ishmael was sent to Egypt.
Abraham wanted the Land of Israel to belong to the children of Jacob, as promised by God (Exodus 6:8; Deuteronomy 9:5).
Today’s “Abraham Accords” tries to bring them together. Here again, they are offered advantages and gifts.
4. The Signed Agreements Have Varying Content and Length
United Arab Emirates and Israel signed a 4-page treaty on peace, diplomatic relations, and full normalization, with a 3-page annex covering investment, civil aviation, tourism, trade, economic relations, innovation, science, technology, the peaceful use of outer space, the environment, telecommunications, agriculture, food security, water, energy, maritime arrangements and legal cooperation. This agreement facilitates the establishment of interfaith dialogue and the prevention of hatred and incitement. Trump signed it as a witness.
Bahrain signed a one-page “Abraham Accords: Declaration of peace, cooperation, and constructive diplomatic and friendly relations.” Trump signed it as a witness.
Sudan signed a one-page “Abraham Accords Declaration.” Steven Terner Mnuchin, 77th United States Secretary of the Treasury, witnesses the signature of the representative of the state of Sudan. The U.S. did not sign it; Israel is not mentioned.
Morocco established diplomatic relations with Israel in 1994, following the signing of the Oslo Accords. This relationship ended on October 23, 2000, with the outbreak of the Second Palestinian Intifada. The previous honeymoon period between Israel and Morocco lasted only six years. The agreement signed on December 22, 2020, takes the form of a “joint declaration“ signed by Morocco, the United States, and Israel.
With this joint declaration, Morocco and Israel reestablished official diplomatic relations, establishing friendly and peaceful relations. They authorized direct flights and overflights of territories, as well as bilateral economic cooperation in areas such as trade, finance, investment, innovation and technology, tourism, water, agriculture, energy, and telecommunications. The liaison offices in Rabat and Tel Aviv were reopened.
The agreement with Morocco does not provide for the establishment of interfaith dialogue or the combating of hatred, incitement to hatred, and discrimination. It does not mention the pursuit of an end to radicalization and conflict.
It does not refer to the Accords. The word Abraham does not appear. This is an economic and political agreement, which requires American and Israeli recognition of Morocco’s sovereignty over Western Sahara.
In November 2021, an agreement formalized defense ties between Morocco and Israel.
5. Economic and Financial Results According to the Abraham Accords Peace Institute Website
According to the Abraham Accords Peace Institute, the total official Abraham Accords trade exceeds $4 billion, up 16% year-over-year (2020-2023). Following the October 7, 2023, attacks, diplomatic relations remain stable. Trade declined by only 4%, compared to an 18% decline for Israel’s overall trade. In 2022, 27% of Israel’s defense exports went to the UAE, Bahrain, Jordan, Egypt, and Morocco, reaching approximately $3 billion.2
Futurology
It is to be hoped that these agreements and their possible extension to other Arab and Muslim states will be a significant step to bring to an end the historic and traditional Muslim enmity to and fear of Israel and Jews.
However, a relevant question surrounding the Accords is whether those Muslim states will be able to overcome their inherent Muslim hostility to Israel and Jews.
Islam has traditionally considered that the Land of Israel belongs to Islam (Dar al Islam). According to their creed, it is an Islamic land (Waqf) for all generations, and Jews do not have any legitimate right to it. This is enunciated with such verses as:
“There is a consensus among Muslims, in the past and present, that if an Islamic land is occupied, then its inhabitants must declare jihad until it is liberated from the occupiers.”3
“Fight those who believe not in God and the Last Day… – those who have been given the Book – until they pay the tribute out of hand and have been humbled.” (Quran 9:29).4
Muslim jurists consider that in case of a catastrophe, it is possible to negotiate and to conclude a peace treaty with the enemy.5 This is on the condition that the holy war resumes before the end of the ten years thereafter. Only if this were unfeasible could the truce be renewed for another ten years:
“By their very nature, treaties must be of a temporary duration, for in Muslim legal theory the normal relations between Muslim and non-Muslim territories are war and not peace” and “since in theory the holy war cannot possibly be suspended for more than ten years, treaties must necessarily be terminated by the end of that period, even though they don’t specify the duration.”6
These jurists refer to the Treaty of Hudaybiya, signed in 628 by Muhammad and the ruling Quraysh tribe of Mecca. The Treaty was to be in force for only ten years. Less than two years later, the balance of power in the area had changed, and the Prophet violated the Treaty, and conquered Mecca.
According to this theory, peace treaties with Israel may be terminated at any time by a single declaration.
It should not be forgotten that Saudi Arabia, which is considering joining the Abraham Accords, leads and controls the Wahhabi-Salafi movement that is gaining ground in all the Gulf States, in many Muslim countries, and as far away as Indonesia. Saudi Arabia is a member of the OIC (Organization of Islamic Cooperation), whose Charter is incompatible with the commitments of the Abraham Accords, and would require Saudi Arabia and those states parties to the accords to declare their reservation to the OIC Charter.7
One may wonder if American and Israeli leaders and people ignore this and prefer to live in a different world.
One may also wonder if these leaders think that Muhammad bin Salman al-Saud, the de facto ruler of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, and Ahmed Hussein al-Sharaa, known also as Abu Muhammad al-Jolani, the leader of the Syrian militant group Hay’at Tahrir al-Sham (HTS), the leader of the Al-Nusra Front, which was an Al-Qaeda affiliate in Syria, understand and accept the first paragraph of the Accords: “We, the undersigned, recognize the importance of maintaining and strengthening peace in the Middle East and around the world based on mutual understanding and coexistence, respect for human dignity and freedom, including religious freedom.”
Another central question is whether American and Israeli leaders and people believe Saudi Arabia’s and Syria’s leaders if they sign onto the Abraham Accords. Note that non-Muslims are not authorized to enter Mecca and certain parts of Medina, and the question is whether this would not be seen as conflicting with the message of mutual understanding and coexistence, and religious freedom.
While it may be questionable if the Abraham Accords will advance the cause of peace, they might be seen to be contributing to this if the following acknowledgment were to be added, indicating an intention on their part to depart from their previous Muslim hostility and enmity toward Israel and the Jews:
“We acknowledge that, according to the prophets of the Bible and the Qur’an, the Jews entered “the Holy Land which God has prescribed for them” (Quran 5:24) and they dwell in the land.” “God has brought them “en masse” (Quran 17:104).
The promise of God! God fails not His promise, but most men do not know it (Quran 30:5).
Would Saudi Arabia, Syria, and other Muslim states such as Egypt and Jordan, sign this additional statement to move a step forward in peace?
Conclusion
Although religious differences, long-standing hostilities, and conflicting regional treaties remain, the very signing of the Abraham Accords is an unprecedented symbolic stride toward Arab acceptance of Israel and the Jewish people. To solidify this progress, however, the accords should be paired with a formal reservation to the OIC Charter and with the proposed declaration that cites Quranic passages affirming the Jewish return to their ancestral land.
FAQs
What are the Abraham Accords and when were they signed?
The Abraham Accords are a set of normalization agreements that formally established diplomatic relations between Israel and several Muslim-majority states. The first accords were signed on 15 September 2020 by Israel, the United Arab Emirates (UAE) and Bahrain at the White House.
Which countries have joined the Accords and in what sequence?
After the UAE and Bahrain (September 2020), Sudan announced normalization on 23 October 2020, Morocco followed on 10 December 2020, and Kosovo finalized ties with Israel on 1 February 2021.
What did each Muslim-majority country gain in return for normalization?
UAE: Suspension of Israel’s Judea-Samaria annexation plans and a pending U.S. arms package worth about US $23 billion (including F-35 jets).
Bahrain: Broader security coordination and U.S. backing similar to the UAE, though no specific arms deal was highlighted.
Sudan: Removal from the U.S. list of state sponsors of terrorism.
Morocco: U.S. and Israeli recognition of Moroccan sovereignty over Western Sahara, plus expanded defense cooperation and drone/air-defense purchases.
Kosovo: Formal diplomatic recognition from Israel.
How do the individual agreements differ in length and focus?
UAE–Israel treaty: Four pages plus a detailed three-page annex covering areas from investment and space cooperation to interfaith dialogue.
Bahrain–Israel declaration: A concise one-page statement of peace and cooperation.
Sudan declaration: A single-page accord witnessed by the U.S. treasury secretary, with no Israeli signature.
Morocco joint declaration: Primarily economic and political, re-establishing liaison offices and flights but omitting interfaith language; “Abraham” is not mentioned.
What economic impact and long-term challenges do the Accords face?
Between 2020 and 2023, trade among Abraham Accords partners exceeded US $4 billion—growing 16 percent year-over-year and proving more resilient than Israel’s overall trade after the October 7 2023 crisis. Nonetheless, lingering religious and ideological objections within parts of the Muslim world and the Organization of Islamic Cooperation (OIC) could threaten the accords’ durability unless further confidence-building measures and religious reconciliations are pursued.
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Notes
1 Unfortunately, the peace treaties with Egypt and Jordan do not address this subject. Incitement against the Jews and Israel did not disappear after the signature of these treaties, despite commitments in the Peace Treaties to prevent incitement.
2 For a summary of the contents of the Abraham Accords, see Alan Baker, “What Was in the Abraham Accords Signed in Washington? JCPA September 24, 2020” https://jcpa.org/what-was-signed-in-the-abraham-accords-signed-in-washington/
3 The “Anti-Normalization” Campaign and Israel’s Right to Exist, Khaled Abu Toameh, August 8, 2016, The Gatestone Institute; https://www.gatestoneinstitute.org/8656/anti-normalization-israel
4 Jews, especially those who live in Israel, do not pay the jizya tribute and are not humbled.
5 The threat from Iran still exists. The Mullahs still rule Iran. Shiites are enemies of Sunnis.
6 Majid Khadduri, War and Peace in the Law of Islam, Johns Hopkins Press, Baltimore (1955), p. 220.
7 The Wahhabi-Salafi ideology is similar to that of the Muslim Brotherhood, and therefore of Hamas, the Islamic State (ISIS), and present-day Shiite Iran. This ideology aims to dominate the world (including Europe and the United States); to destroy Israel, which for them is a land of Islam; and to kill the Jews, who are the enemies of Allah according to the Quran itself. Saudi Arabia has been a member of the Organization of Islamic Cooperation (OIC) since 1981. The purpose of this Organization mentioned in its Charter, is: “to support the restoration of complete sovereignty and territorial integrity of any Member State under occupation, as a result of aggression, based on international law and cooperation… (article 1. 4)” and “to support and empower the Palestinian people to exercise their right to self-determination and establish their sovereign State with Al-Quds Al-Sharif (Jerusalem) as its capital… (article 1.8). Any state party to the Abraham Accords must declare a reservation from these Charter terms, which are incompatible with the Abraham Accords
